But not from outside of India. Finally, different from the other eight loci, locus 4C had a 69-25-0 unique allele (#28) found only in the Indian azoleresistant strains and this allele was absent from any other strains in the whole analyzed sample, either from within or outside of India (Fig. 2).DiscussionThe site specific mode of action and intensive use of demethylase inhibitors (DMIs) fungicides for post harvest spoilage crop protection against phytopathogenic molds, has led to the development of resistance in many fungi of agricultural importance. It is anticipated that the excessive use of azoles in agriculture would not only influence the plant pathogenic fungi but also would inevitably influence susceptible species of the saprophytic flora [23]. Many potentially human pathogenic fungi such as Coccidioides, Histoplasma, Aspergillus, and Cryptococcus have their natural habitats in the environment and in many MedChemExpress Salmon calcitonin instances the infecting fungal organisms are acquired from the surrounding environment. Recently the use of azole-based agricultural chemicals has also been implicated as a major factor in the increase in frequency of multiple-triazole-resistant (MTR) isolates of A. fumigatus infecting humans by selection of MTR alleles [24,25]. This is supported by a recent report originating from theNetherlands that showed over 90 of Dutch azole resistant A. fumigatus isolates recovered from epidemiologically unrelated patients clustered onto a single lineage [13]. In the present study 7 of the Indian environmental A. fumigatus isolates were multitriazole resistant with a single resistant mechanism carrying the TR34/L98H mutation in the cyp51A gene (Table 1). The resistant isolates were recovered from soil samples of potted plants, paddy fields and tea gardens where certain triazole fungicides (tebuconazole, hexaconazole, and epoxiconazole) were extensively used. Although, Europe leads the world in usage of agricultural fungicides (40 ) followed by Japan and Latin America, in India usage of fungicides is increasing and current fungicide use in India is 19 of the total pesticide use [26]. In the USA the use of azoles in agriculture is insignificant as compared to Europe (http://ec. europa.eu/food/fs/sc/ssc/out278_en.pdf). Consequently, there has been 24195657 no report of finding the TR34/L98H mutation in clinical or environmental isolates in the USA. But this resistance type has been found in the environment in Europe and now also in India. It is noteworthy that so far no environmental survey of TR34/L98H A. fumigatus isolates outside Europe has been reported. The fungicides belonging to different chemical groups have been registered in India only in the past two decades and these are being used against diverse diseases in fruits, vegetables, plantation crops and some field crops [26]. Triazole fungicides such as hexaconazole, propiconazole, triadimefon, and tricyclazole account for a substantial fungicide market in India [26]. Overall, 11967625 the highest fungicide usage in India is on pome fruits (12.7 ), followed by potatoes (12.2 ), rice (12 ), tea (9.4 ), coffee, chillies, grapevines, other fruits and vegetables [26]. Also, triazole fungicides are characterized by their long persistence in soil. Singh and Dureja demonstrated that hexaconazole persist longer in Indian soil due to its hydrophobic nature [27]. In India, the maximum amounts of fungicide usage are found in southern India, followed by western,Azole Resistant A. fumigatus from IndiaAzole Resistant A.But not from outside of India. Finally, different from the other eight loci, locus 4C had a unique allele (#28) found only in the Indian azoleresistant strains and this allele was absent from any other strains in the whole analyzed sample, either from within or outside of India (Fig. 2).DiscussionThe site specific mode of action and intensive use of demethylase inhibitors (DMIs) fungicides for post harvest spoilage crop protection against phytopathogenic molds, has led to the development of resistance in many fungi of agricultural importance. It is anticipated that the excessive use of azoles in agriculture would not only influence the plant pathogenic fungi but also would inevitably influence susceptible species of the saprophytic flora [23]. Many potentially human pathogenic fungi such as Coccidioides, Histoplasma, Aspergillus, and Cryptococcus have their natural habitats in the environment and in many instances the infecting fungal organisms are acquired from the surrounding environment. Recently the use of azole-based agricultural chemicals has also been implicated as a major factor in the increase in frequency of multiple-triazole-resistant (MTR) isolates of A. fumigatus infecting humans by selection of MTR alleles [24,25]. This is supported by a recent report originating from theNetherlands that showed over 90 of Dutch azole resistant A. fumigatus isolates recovered from epidemiologically unrelated patients clustered onto a single lineage [13]. In the present study 7 of the Indian environmental A. fumigatus isolates were multitriazole resistant with a single resistant mechanism carrying the TR34/L98H mutation in the cyp51A gene (Table 1). The resistant isolates were recovered from soil samples of potted plants, paddy fields and tea gardens where certain triazole fungicides (tebuconazole, hexaconazole, and epoxiconazole) were extensively used. Although, Europe leads the world in usage of agricultural fungicides (40 ) followed by Japan and Latin America, in India usage of fungicides is increasing and current fungicide use in India is 19 of the total pesticide use [26]. In the USA the use of azoles in agriculture is insignificant as compared to Europe (http://ec. europa.eu/food/fs/sc/ssc/out278_en.pdf). Consequently, there has been 24195657 no report of finding the TR34/L98H mutation in clinical or environmental isolates in the USA. But this resistance type has been found in the environment in Europe and now also in India. It is noteworthy that so far no environmental survey of TR34/L98H A. fumigatus isolates outside Europe has been reported. The fungicides belonging to different chemical groups have been registered in India only in the past two decades and these are being used against diverse diseases in fruits, vegetables, plantation crops and some field crops [26]. Triazole fungicides such as hexaconazole, propiconazole, triadimefon, and tricyclazole account for a substantial fungicide market in India [26]. Overall, 11967625 the highest fungicide usage in India is on pome fruits (12.7 ), followed by potatoes (12.2 ), rice (12 ), tea (9.4 ), coffee, chillies, grapevines, other fruits and vegetables [26]. Also, triazole fungicides are characterized by their long persistence in soil. Singh and Dureja demonstrated that hexaconazole persist longer in Indian soil due to its hydrophobic nature [27]. In India, the maximum amounts of fungicide usage are found in southern India, followed by western,Azole Resistant A. fumigatus from IndiaAzole Resistant A.
